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Physical Maps
Different types of physical maps vary in their degree of resolution. The lowest-resolution physical map is the chromosomal (sometimes called cytogenetic) map, which is based on the distinctive banding patterns observed by light microscopy of stained chromosomes. A cDNA map shows the locations of expressed DNA regions (exons) on the chromosomal map. The more detailed cosmid contig map depicts the order of overlapping DNA frag-ments spanning the genome. A macrorestriction map describes the order and distance between enzyme cutting (cleavage) sites. The highest-resolution physical map is the complete elucidation of the DNA base-pair sequence of each chromosome in the human genome. Physical maps are described in greater detail below.
Low-Resolution Physical Mapping
Chromosomal map.
In a chromosomal map, genes or other identifiable DNA fragments are assigned to their respective chromosomes, with distances measured in base pairs. These markers can be physically associated with particular bands (identified by cytoge-netic staining) primarily by in situ hybridization, a technique that involves tagging the DNA marker with an observable label (e.g., one that fluoresces or is radioactive). The location of the labeled probe can be detected after it binds to its complementary DNA strand in an intact chromosome.As with genetic linkage mapping, chromosomal mapping can be used to locate genetic markers defined by traits observable only in whole organisms. Because chromosomal maps are based on estimates of physical distance, they are considered to be physical maps. The number of base pairs within a band can only be estimated.
Until recently, even the best chromosomal maps could be used to locate a DNA fragment only to a region of about 10 Mb, the size of a typical band seen on a chromosome. Improvements in fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) methods allow orientation of DNA sequences that lie as close as 2 to 5 Mb. Modifications to in situ hybridization methods, using chromosomes at a stage in cell division (interphase) when they are less compact, increase map resolution to around 100,000 bp. Further banding refinement might allow chromosomal bands to be associated with specific amplified DNA fragments, an improvement that could be useful in analyzing observable physical traits associated with chromosomal abnormalities.
cDNA map.
A cDNA map shows the positions of expressed DNA regions (exons) relative to particular chromosomal regions or bands. (Expressed DNA regions are those transcribed into mRNA.) cDNA is synthesized in the laboratory using the mRNA molecule as a template; base-pairing rules are followed (i.e., an A on the mRNA molecule will pair with a T on the new DNA strand). This cDNA can then be mapped to genomic regions.Because they represent expressed genomic regions, cDNAs are thought to identify the parts of the genome with the most biological and medical significance. A cDNA map can provide the chromosomal location for genes whose functions are currently unknown. For disease-gene hunters, the map can also suggest a set of candidate genes to test when the approximate location of a disease gene has been mapped by genetic linkage tech-niques.
High-Resolution Physical Mapping
The two current approaches to high-resolution physical mapping are termed "top-down" (producing a macrorestriction map) and "bottom-up" (resulting in a contig map). With either strategy (described below) the maps represent ordered sets of DNA fragments that are generated by cutting genomic DNA with restriction enzymes (see Restriction En-zymes box at right). The fragments are then amplified by cloning or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods (see DNA Amplification). Electrophoretic techniques are used to separate the fragments according to size into different bands, which can be visualized by direct DNA staining or by hybridization with DNA probes of interest. The use of purified chromosomes separated either by flow sorting from human cell lines or in hybrid cell lines allows a single chromosome to be mapped (see Separating Chromosomes box at right).
A number of strategies can be used to reconstruct the original order of the DNA fragments in the genome. Many approaches make use of the ability of single strands of DNA and/or RNA to hybridize—to form double-stranded segments by hydrogen bonding between complementary bases. The extent of sequence homology between the two strands can be inferred from the length of the double-stranded segment. Fingerprinting uses restriction map data to determine which fragments have a specific sequence (fingerprint) in common and therefore overlap. Another approach uses linking clones as probes for hybridization to chromosomal DNA cut with the same restriction enzyme.
| Restriction Enzymes: Microscopic
Scalpels Isolated from various bacteria, restriction enzymes recognize short DNA sequences and cut the DNA molecules at those specific sites. (A natural biological function of these enzymes is to protect bacteria by attacking viral and other foreign DNA.) Some restriction enzymes (rare-cutters) cut the DNA very infrequently, generating a small number of very large fragments (several thousand to a million bp). Most enzymes cut DNA more frequently, thus generating a large number of small fragments (less than a hundred to more than a thousand bp). On average, restriction enzymes with
Since hundreds of different restriction enzymes have been characterized, DNA can be cut into many different small fragments. |
| Separating Chromosomes Flow sorting Pioneered at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), flow sorting employs flow cytometry to separate, according to size, chromosomes isolated from cells during cell division when they are condensed and stable. As the chromosomes flow singly past a laser beam, they are differen-tiated by analyzing the amount of DNA present, and individual chromosomes are directed to specific collection tubes. Somatic cell hybridization In somatic cell hybridization, human cells and rodent tumor cells are fused (hybrid-ized); over time, after the chromosomes mix, human chromosomes are preferentially lost from the hybrid cell until only one or a few remain. Those individual hybrid cells are then propagated and maintained as cell lines containing specific human chromo-somes. Improvements to this technique have generated a number of hybrid cell lines, each with a specific single human chromosome. |
Macrorestriction maps: Top-down mapping.
In top-down mapping, a single chromosome is cut (with rare-cutter restriction enzymes) into large pieces, which are ordered and subdivided; the smaller pieces are then mapped further. The resulting macro-restriction maps depict the order of and distance between sites at which rare-cutter enzymes cleave (Fig. 9a). This approach yields maps with more continuity and fewer gaps between fragments than contig maps (see below), but map resolution is lower and may not be useful in finding particular genes; in addition, this strategy generally does not produce long stretches of mapped sites. Currently, this approach allows DNA pieces to be located in regions measuring about 100,000 bp to 1 Mb.The development of pulsed-field gel (PFG) electrophoretic methods has improved the mapping and cloning of large DNA molecules. While conventional gel electrophoretic methods separate pieces less than 40 kb (1 kb = 1000 bases) in size, PFG separates molecules up to 10 Mb, allowing the application of both conventional and new mapping methods to larger genomic regions.
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| Fig. 9. Physical Mapping Strategies. Top-down physical mapping (a) produces maps with few gaps, but map resolution may not allow location of specific genes. Bottom-up strategies (b) generate extremely detailed maps of small areas but leave many gaps. A combination of both approaches is being used. [Source: Adapted from P. R. Billings et al., "New Techniques for Physical Mapping of the Human Genome," The FASEB Journal 5(1), 29 (1991).] |
Contig maps: Bottom-up mapping.
The bottom-up approach involves cutting the chromosome into small pieces, each of which is cloned and ordered. The ordered frag-ments form contiguous DNA blocks (contigs). Currently, the resulting "library" of clones varies in size from 10,000 bp to 1 Mb (Fig. 9b). An advantage of this approach is the accessibility of these stable clones to other researchers. Contig construction can be verified by FISH, which localizes cosmids to specific regions within chromosomal bands.Contig maps thus consist of a linked library of small overlapping clones representing a complete chromosomal segment. While useful for finding genes localized to a small area (under 2 Mb), contig maps are difficult to extend over large stretches of a chromosome because all regions are not clonable. DNA probe techniques can be used to fill in the gaps, but they are time consuming. Figure 10 is a diagram relating the different types of maps.
Technological improvements now make possible the cloning of large DNA pieces, using artificially constructed chromosome vectors that carry human DNA fragments as large as 1 Mb. These vectors are maintained in yeast cells as artificial chromosomes (YACs). (For more explanation, see DNA Amplification.) Before YACs were developed, the largest cloning vectors (cosmids) carried inserts of only 20 to 40 kb. YAC methodology drastically reduces the number of clones to be ordered; many YACs span entire human genes. A more detailed map of a large YAC insert can be produced by subcloning, a process in which fragments of the original insert are cloned into smaller-insert vectors. Because some YAC regions are unstable, large-capacity bacterial vectors (i.e., those that can accommodate large inserts) are also being developed.
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| Fig. 10. Types of Genome Maps. At the coarsest resolution, the genetic map measures recombination frequency between linked markers (genes or poly-morphisms). At the next reso-lution level, restriction fragments of 1 to 2 Mb can be separated and mapped. Ordered libraries of cosmids and YACs have insert sizes from 40 to 400 kb. The base sequence is the ultimate physical map. Chromosomal mapping (not shown) locates genetic sites in relation to bands on chromo-somes (estimated resolution of 5 Mb); new in situ hybridization techniques can place loci 100 kb apart. These direct strategies link the other four mapping approaches diagramed here. [Source: see Fig. 9.] |
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